Jesus Is Borg The Truth Shall Set You Free.

Contents

PART II

RATIONALISM: ITS PHILOSOPHY AND RULE OF LIFE
RATIONALISM
FIRST PRINCIPLES
TRUTHS
THE SUPREME CAUSE
SOME DEFINITIONS
KNOWLEDGE, BELIEF, FAITH, ETC
THE CAUSE OF ALL LIFE
ORIGIN OF LIFE
EVOLUTION
POLARITY
ASCENT OF MAN
DEATH AND DISSOLUTION
MORALITY
THE UNIVERSE
THE EARTH; GEOLOGICAL EPOCHS, ETC
THE SOLAR SYSTEM; SEASONS, ETC
THE ANCIENT ZODIAC
ETHICS AND CUSTOMS OF SOCIAL LIFE
DUTY AND FAULT
MAN'S MORAL CODE
RATIONALIST SOCIETIES
PUBLIC HOLIDAYS AND THEIR ORIGIN
NAMING AND REGISTRATION OF CHILDREN
MARRIAGE
BURIAL OF THE DEAD
FREEDOM OF THOUGHT AND SPEECH
OATHS, AFFIRMATIONS, AND LAST WILL

 

RATIONALISM: ITS PHILOSOPHY AND RULE OF LIFE

RATIONALISM is a general term applied to a system of opinions deduced from reason as distinct from supernatural revelation, and is so wide in its meaning as to embrace various schools of thought, such as Agnosticism, Freethinking, Secularism, Ethicalism, etc. The word "agnostic" (derived from the Greek agnostos, unknown, or not knowing) was coined by the late Professor T.H. Huxley, as being descriptive of his own feelings and opinions upon the religious questions of the day, in contradistinction to the "Gnosticism" of theologians, who pretend to a certain knowledge of that which is unknown to, and unknowable by, human faculties. He said: "There are many topics about which I know nothing, and which ... are out of the reach of my faculties;" he therefore called himself an Agnostic. Again: "Agnosticism is not a creed, but a method, having a single principle of great antiquity. It simply means that a man shall not say that he knows or believes that which he has no scientific grounds for professing to know or believe ... Agnosticism says that we know nothing of what may be beyond phenomena."

As every man should be able to give a reason for the faith that is in him, which, as Huxley says, "is a fundamental axiom of modern science, as well as a maxim of great antiquity," some form of words, expressing concisely what man may have sufficient grounds for saying that he knows (as distinctive from a creed or belief), is necessary for the education of the young, and for inquiring adults; a form of words demonstrating those universal truths, discoveries of science, which may be held and taught as being in accordance with reason, and capable of demonstration; the mind being still free, open to conviction, and to further developments of science. As the Agnostic method or principle would limit us, if strictly adhered to, to absolute knowledge, the term Rationalism is preferred as being broader, and as admitting relative and deductive knowledge, and some freedom of belief; for there are many things which, although we may not be able to say that we know, yet that we might have good grounds for saying that we believed, and so convincing as to be accepted as deducible facts. These "will vary," said Huxley, "according to individual knowledge and capacity, and according to the general condition of science, for that which is unproven to-day may be proven to-morrow." Agnosticism may be said to be the method or principle upon which Rationalism works.

The aim of Rationalism is knowledge and truth -- discarding all supernatural revelation as superstition; morality -- as being necessary for the organization of social life, not for the sake of a reward hereafter; and universal happiness and prosperity -- not misery, wretchedness, and poverty to please an imaginary deity, the extent of whose pleasure is measured by the depth of misery into which the object of his supposed creation is thrown. Its guiding stars are love and sympathy. The Rationalist, having nothing to fear from the vengeance of a vindictive and jealous deity, can have no desire to be held in the esteem of his fellows as "god-fearing "or" religious," aspiring only to goodness and truth between man and man; knowing that happiness is the only good, that it is to be obtained now, in this world, and not sought for in an imaginary future, of which he has absolutely no knowledge. The term "religious" is a vague one, and with many is held as being synonymous with goodness. What is considered "religious" by one may be "irreligious" to another; the degree of religiousness being measured by the amount of outward support given to some particular form of theology; so that, to the adherents of a particular creed, one whose opinions would lead him to believe that all theological theories and systems are erroneous and misleading would be considered irreligious."

FIRST PRINCIPLES

1. "Positively, in matters of the intellect, follow your reason as far as it will take you, without regard to any other consideration.

2. "Negatively, in matters of the intellect, do not pretend that conclusions are certain which are not demonstrated or demonstrable.

3. "The only negative fixed points are those negations which follow from the demonstrable limitations of our faculties.

4. "The only obligation accepted is to have the mind always open to conviction."

TRUTHS

1. Nothing can rightly be accepted as fact or knowledge that cannot be verified by reason and evidence.

2. As the knowable is that which lies within, so the unknowable is that which lies without, the range of human reason and conception.

3. All knowledge is derived from phenomena; is relative, subordinate, and finite.

4. All phenomena are manifested in accordance with a uniform law of nature called "evolution," to which all progress and development in the universe (including religious feeling and moral ideas) are due.

5. The two principles which underlie all the evolutionary processes are the "persistence of force" and the "conservation of energy."

6. The universe is made up of matter and motion in a fixed quantity; anything outside or beyond the universe is not only unknown and unknowable, but inconceivable.

7. We have no knowledge of the "creation" of matter out of nothing, or of any law by which it would be possible for such to occur. All has been evolved from something existing before.

8. All phenomena are manifestations of, and caused by, a power or cause, in and part of the universe, unknown and unknowable to man.

9. As there can be no effect without a cause, no phenomenon without power to produce it, we know that the cause exists.

10. The cause we know (by inference and deduction) to be uncaused, the only cause, the first cause, absolute, supreme, and infinite.

11. The nature and substance of the cause being unknown and unknowable, we have no knowledge of the cause as a person, and possessed of human attributes.

THE SUPREME CAUSE

"A pow'r there is, unseen, though real,

No faculty of man can sense;

Supreme, omnipotent, immense,

That none can know, but all must feel.

"In all we see around, behold!

What order, beauty, form, and law;

The glorious sun, the wind-toss'd straw,

The wonders of this pow'r unfold.

"From humble zoophyte to man,

Range through the mighty cosmic scale;

Not in the meanest link there fail

Traces of its imperial plan.

"Stupendous pow'r! majestic scheme!

Lips feebly lisp thy worthy praise;

The awe-struck mind thy marvels daze;

Thou art! -- yet what man cannot dream."

[Jenner G. Hillier.]

SOME DEFINITIONS

PHILOSOPHY (philos, loving; sophia, wisdom) treats of nature, science, and ethics. The unification, or completion, of facts to form a whole is called a "synthesis."

RELIGION (re, back or together; ligo, to bind) is subjective, and is the feeling which has been evolved in man, as he acquired a knowledge of right and wrong, but has not necessarily any connection with the conception of a deity. It is the principle of, or motive for, morality. It is this feeling which prompts man to interest himself in the mysteries of phenomena and life, and by which many are led, instead of into the paths of science, into the realms of the supernatural, and into the hands of the theologian with his "inspired revelations."

THEOLOGY (theos, god; logos, discourse) is objective, and relates to ideas and conceptions which man entertains respecting the deity he has conceived in his mind, generally a manlike (anthropomorphic) being; and the system of dogmas built up around them, the adherence to which constitutes the sum of duty. The fear of, and reverence for, the deity thus acts as the principle of, or motive for, morality, in place of the pure and natural motive of social fellowship and co-operation -- human love and sympathy.

ECCLESIASTES or CLERICALISM is "the championship of a foregone conclusion as to the truth of a particular form of theology," [T.H. Huxley.] the non-acceptance of which -- notwithstanding the negative results of a strict scientific investigation of the evidence in its favor -- is believed to be morally wrong; thus forcing a despotic adherence to certain dogmatic principles and observances upon all.

KNOWLEDGE, BELIEF, FAITH, ETC

Knowledge is a decision formed by the consciousness of actual fact or phenomenon. It may be absolute and subjective, for we do not know absolutely that anything outside of ourselves exists; or inferential and objective. The latter is generally understood as knowledge, for when confirmed by experience it becomes as certain as the former. Knowledge is always relative, for we infer or assume that certain states of our consciousness are caused by something external to self, which supposed something we call matter; of it we can know nothing, except as it affects our state of consciousness. Our knowledge is thus seen to be limited and variable in extent; and it is this that gives rise to what we call "chance."

An inference is a truth or proposition drawn from another which is admitted to be true; this is done by deduction (literally a taking from another), an act or method of drawing inferences from premises, a premise being a proposition laid down as the base of an argument. Chance exists only subjectively, for it is a word which expresses a state of our mind. When occurrences take place not anticipated by us, we attribute them to chance; but, had our knowledge been more extensive, they would have been certainties. What may appear chance to one may be a certainty to another whose knowledge is more advanced. There is no chance in nature, any more than there is chaos, Every occurrence that takes place is a certainty. It may appear to us a chance whether in the tossing of a coin it "turns up heads or tails;" but, had the movement of the coin been so slow that the eye could have followed every turn, we should have said "the turn up" was a certainty. But the change in our decision is a subjective one, and is due to the change that has taken place in our minds from ignorance to knowledge; not an objective one, due to any change in the coin. All nature acts in an invariable order and by an uniformity, which, in the order of cause and effect exhibited in a certain way under certain circumstances, will invariably manifest itself in the same way, so long as the conditions remain the same.

Luck and ill-luck, good and bad fortune, are events which are due to accidental circumstances, over which man has no control. Accident took the late Colonel North to a part of the world where existed nitrate fields; accident also rendered those nitrates at that time valuable; with the result that, seizing his opportunity, he developed them, and amassed a large fortune. Had accident taken him to a part of the world where there were no nitrate fields, the probability is he would not have amassed such a large fortune. These very accidents, however, are subject to natural law.

Belief is a decision formed on the support of some amount of evidence, though not sufficiently conclusive to constitute knowledge.

Faith is an assent of the mind to what is declared by another, supported on no evidence, or evidence so weak as to be unreliable. Faith in religion is not justified. The late T.H. Huxley said: "Skepticism is the highest of duties, and blind faith the one unpardonable sin." To reject the truths acquired by scientific research, proved by reason and experience to be true, is to be guilty of wilful ignorance. But there is no obligation on any one to believe anything on the mere word of another, without sufficient evidence forthcoming to support it; and to accept any statement, whether concerning religion or anything else, on blind faith is to be guilty of credulity. The confusion of the meaning of such words as knowledge, belief, and faith has led to very disastrous results; not only in social and domestic life, where serious injuries have been inflicted on individuals and their reputations, but in public life, where wholesale cruelty and persecution have taken place, and generally under the name of "religion." Dogmas concerning the unknowable have been forced upon people as truths, which were only pious beliefs. It is a universal law, and an Agnostic first principle, that we should accept no statement as true on the simple word of another, and without verification.

THE CAUSE OF ALL

The unknown and unknowable power, existing in, and forming part of, the universe, manifested as phenomena in matter and motion (force and energy), is revealed to man by study of phenomena, and by the application of certain scientific laws known by experience and proved by experiment to be immutable and unvarying; as being the first cause of the effects manifested, the only cause, the uncaused cause -- infinite, absolute, and supreme. "The power which the universe manifests to us is utterly inscrutable." [Herbert Spencer.] As the supreme cause is unknowable, nothing is or can be known respecting its nature or substance, and, a' fortiori, sex; and what we know or can know respecting the relations of the inscrutable cause to man, and such other mysteries as birth, life, and death, are explained by the known or knowable natural laws of science and evolution. "For the same reason, nothing is or can be known of the supreme cause as a deity or god; for to conceive the idea would involve a conception of the inconceivable; and as every conception involves relation, likeness, and difference, whatever does not present each of these is unknowable." [A. Simmons.]

LIFE

Life is the force or power of motion existing in a body, and is the animating principle which pervades all matter. It is a product of evolution, and consists in the continuous adjustment of internal relations to external relations. When the latter begin to be numerous, complex, and remote in space and time, intelligence shows itself." [H. Spencer.] Living matter differs from non-living matter in possessing the power to initiate motion from within. In the latter, all motion must be initiated from without. The whole earth on which we live, and all the particles of matter comprising it, are in continuous motion. Life is inter-changeable, and capable of conversion into active organic structure; ever changing the face of nature, and yet in itself unchangeable. It may be active, as in animate organisms, or passive, quiescent, or latent, as in material formations. The former differs from the latter in being possessed of intelligence, "which enables it to adopt means to certain desirable ends, thus manifesting a struggle for existence." Life in animal organisms differs from that in vegetal organisms, in being possessed of consciousness; conscious intelligence being the distinguishing feature of animal life. Intelligence becomes conscious in and with progressive evolution of structure arising from the constant struggle for existence, whereby the fittest survive. "Though the operations and faculties of the mind may be known and studied, the thinking power itself cannot be comprehended. We may symbolize the mind as a substance, but a symbol is not the thing itself. To know the mind we must be able to class it; but, being unique and unlike all other phenomena, it cannot be classed. In ourselves (subject) and in the external universe (object) we encounter a mystery which we can only, in dumb wonder, refer to the unknowable absolute." [Spencer, summarized by F.J. Gould.]

ORIGIN OF LIFE

The essentials of life are heat and moisture. Life on our earth was due, in the first instance, to energy radiated under the form of light and heat from the sun, acting upon a minute atom of protoplasm under water, in combination with chlorophyll, which has the power of building up substances by producing respiration -- i.e., by decomposing air and water, and taking up the oxygen contained in both, thus forming hydrocarbons. The green color in plants is produced by the action of chlorophyll, without which there is no life. The structural starting-point of all life was the primitive moneron, or minute particle of albuminoid matter called protoplasm. This gradually assumed the cellular form, with central nucleus, the chief center of activity, becoming an ameba. All living matter is made up of one or many cells, multiplication taking place by division; the cell becoming constricted in its middle, the two ends gradually separate, thus forming two independent cells. The single cell, the lowest member (amteba) of the Protozoa group, being of astounding minuteness in size, does everything appertaining to life -- feeling, moving, feeding, and multiplying. The many-celled organisms (Afelazoa group), as they were gradually evolved from the single cell, divided their various functions among their component cells, each one adapting itself for its own special work, division of labor causing difference of structure -- root, stem, leaf, sap, and seed in the plant; bone, muscle, nerve, tissue, blood, and eggs in the animal. Life precedes the appearance and development of organized structures.

"The sun's heat is the source of the social forces; social forces are resolvable into mental forces, mental forces into vital forces, vital forces into physical forces, and physical forces into solar radiation. Without the sun's light and heat, neither an animal nor a vegetal could exist for a single moment. The power of the sun is responsible, not only for the growth of a plant and the temperature of a climate; not only for the fluctuations in the price of flower, and the ravages of a famine; but also for the rise of a new literature and the fall of an old dynasty. To the force of the sun we trace alike the force displayed by a running fox or by a rippling rivulet, the force which vibrates in a musical note, or in a yawning earthquake, and the force which moans in the wind or which crashes in the cataract." [A. Simmons, "First Principles."]

EVOLUTION

Evolution is defined as being "an integration [elements forming a whole] of matter, and a concomitant dissipation of motion, during which matter passes from an indefinite, incoherent homogeneity [of like elements] to a definite, coherent heterogeneity [of unlike elements]; and during which the retained motion undergoes a parallel transformation." [H. Spencer.] The factors in the process constituting evolution are: (1) The instability of the homogeneous, or unstable equilibrium, which is apparent throughout the range of phenomena, in the evolution of mechanics as in the evolution of the species; each species being an assemblage of organisms, which does not remain uniform, but is ever becoming multiform. (2) The multiplication of effects, or production of many consequences by a single cause; the heterogeneous producing, by the action of all parts on one another, an immense variety of results. (3) Segregation or "gathering of like units into groups, is constituted by that clustering of similar things into aggregates which goes on simultaneously with the grouping of the other aggregates or dissimilar things;" and it is by this that we get that individuality or definiteness which all objects manifest, and which takes place throughout all phenomena. (4) Equilibration "is the goal to which the instability of the homogeneous, the multiplication of effects and segregations, inevitably tend; it is that universal balancing of active and re- active forces which necessitates the rhythm of motion and the harmony of nature ... It is the limit beyond which evolution cannot proceed ... the redistribution of matter which we observe around us must be arrested by the dissipation of the motions affecting them. Different motions are resisted by opposing forces, and are, therefore, continually suffering from deductions; and these unceasing losses end in the cessation of motion."

"This law of organic progress [evolution] is the law of all progress. Whether it be in the development of the earth, in the development of life upon its surface, in the development of society, of government, of manufactures, of commerce, of language, literature, science, art, this same evolution of the simple into the complex, through a process of continuous differentiation, holds throughout." [H. Spencer.]

"The principle which underlies all the evolutionary processes is the 'persistence of force.' It is by this that there is a tendency in every organism to maintain a balanced condition. To it may be traced the capacity possessed in a slight degree by individuals, and in a greater degree by species, of becoming adapted to new Circumstances. And not less does it afford a basis for the inference that there is a gradual advance towards harmony between man's mental nature and the conditions of his existence. After finding that from it are deducible the various characteristics of evolution, we finally draw from it a warrant for the belief that evolution can end only in the establishment of the greatest perfection and the most complete happiness." [A. Simmons.] Nature knows nothing of annihilation, and nothing of creation; all is evolution. "To some persons the foregoing formula will appear startling, if not utterly bewildering. The vulgar notion, that evolution is the passage of the quadruped into the biped -- that evolution begins with a monkey and ends with a man -- seems beneath notice, beneath contempt. Yet this notion is vaguely held by a considerable majority of the general public. That evolution is concerned with the development of the human race, whether from some lower tribe of mammalia or from forms lower still, is quite true. But this is an infinitesimal part of the great work of evolution." [A. Simmons.]

EVOLUTION OF THE INDIVIDUAL, -- "Every living thing is evolved from a particle or germ of matter, in which no trace of the distinctive characters of the adult form is discernible." And this takes place by epigenesis, which consists in the differentiation of the relatively homogeneous rudiment or germ into the parts and structure which are characteristic of the adult. "In all animals and plants above the lowest the germ is a nucleated cell, and the first step in the process of evolution is the division of this cell into two or more portions; the process of division is repeated until the body, from being uni-cellular, becomes multi-cellular. The single cell becomes a cell aggregate; and it is to the growth and metamorphosis of the cells of the cell aggregate thus produced that cell organs and tissues of the adult owe their origin. The cells from the cell aggregate or morula diverge from one another in such a manner as to give rise to a central space, around which they dispose themselves as a coat or envelope, and thus the morula becomes a vesicle filled with a fluid -- the planula. The wall of the planula is next pushed in on one side (invaginated), whereby it is converted into a double-walled sac with an opening, which leads into the cavity lined by the inner wall. This cavity is the primitive alimentary cavity. The inner, or invaginated, layer is the hypoblast; the outer, the epiblast; and the embryo in this stage is termed a gastrula. In all the higher animals a layer of cells makes its appearance between the hypoblast and the epiblast, and is termed the mesoblast. In the further development the epiblast becomes the ectoderm, or epidermic layer of the body (or skin); the hypoblast becomes the epithelium of the middle portion of the alimentary canal; and the mesoblast gives rise to all the other tissues except the central nervous system, which originates from an ingrowth of the epiblast. With regard to procreation, the female germ or ovum in all the higher animals and plants is a body which possesses the structure of a nucleated cell; impregnation consists in the fusion of the nucleus of the male cell or germ with the ovum; the structural components of the body of the embryo being derived by a process of division from the coalesced male and female germs; and it is probable that every part of the adult contains molecules both from the male and from the female parent." [T.H. Huxley, "Evolution in Biology."]

EVOLUTION OF SPECIES. -- The "Darwinian" theory, now universally accepted, is that "all organisms produce offspring, on the whole, like themselves, but exhibiting new and individual features. As the result of the severe struggle for existence, only a small percentage survive to become reproductive adults. The survivors are those whose variations enable them to gain some advantage over their fellows in the struggle for food, mates, and other conditions of well-being. A fit variation not only secures the survival of its possessors, but is transmitted from parents to offspring, and is intensified from generation to generation. By this process of 'natural selection' of advantageous variations, continued for generations, the modification of species has been effected." [J.A. Thomson, "Zoology."] The variations in species have assumed their present definite characters through long periods of time. Domesticated animals, having all the essential characters of new races, afford us good examples. These variations or changes may arise from sustained environment -- i.e., external influences and surroundings; from persistent change of function, as the result of use and disuse; or from various protoplasmic causes. The development of a new species is also intensified by sexual selection, in which choice exercises an improving influence in reproduction, thus tending to transmit certain qualities; and, by sustained isolation, preventing by geographical separation, intercrossing. It may thus be easily seen how man, by cultivating his good faculties, and restraining and subduing his bad ones, can improve the mental and moral qualities of his children; and, if these qualities are perpetuated through subsequent generations, improvement is effected in the race.

During the PLUTONIC period of the earth's history no life could exist. but during the following period -- the LAURENTIAN -- when the earth had become sufficiently cooled to sustain life, a tiny atom of protoplasm was evolved; later was developed, as we have seen, a central nucleus (aytivla); then masses of these nucleated cells (synamaebae); then the cells became ciliated, forming ciliae; then, a number of these cells assuming a horse-shoe shape, a rudimentary mouth was formed; then an alimentary canal was developed in the same manner, evolving a low form of worm. In the next period -- the SILURIAN -- we find rudimentary spinal cords and vertebra, developing; then heads, hearts, and single nasal cavities. In the next -- the DEVONIAN period -- we find double nostrils developed, also fins and jaws, gills and lungs. Hitherto all life has been "aquatic." Now we come to the period of "air- breathers," the first of which were double-breathers, in both water and air -- mud fishes. In the next -- the CARBONIFEROUS -- we find tails and legs, and reptiles evolved, and from the latter complete "air-breathers" -- birds. Then the enormous class of mammals. In the next two periods -- the TRIASSIC and JURASSIC -- we find a further development of mammals with marsupial bones. In the next -- the EOCENE -- brain convolutions and placentals evolved; hoofed animals, beasts of proy, water and air quadrupeds with claws, etc. In the next -- the MIOCENE -- we find the order of Primates being evolved, from which lemurs, New World monkeys, Old World apes, and man have been evolved; all being of common mammalian descent.

Man, representing the highest development of animal life, was in Tertiary times a tree-dweller; later, a cave-dweller; and, later still, a lake-dweller. Apes of the Old World came next, being the highest of their class, and the nearest approach to man and, from their many resemblances to the latter, called "Anthropoids." They include gibbons, orangs, chimpanzees, and gorillas; all being without tails and cheek pouches, and having teeth and catarhine nostrils, like man. Man and the anthropoid ape are similar in structure, bodily life, gesture, and expression, and both are subject to the same diseases, form distinct societies, and combine for protection; combination favoring the development of emotional and intellectual strength. Where man differs from the ape is in the fact that he has a heavier brain and a broader forehead, and possesses the power of building up ideas; he is more erect, and has a more perfectly-developed vocal mechanism, a better heel, and a shorter arm. His prolonged infancy helped to evolve gentleness, as the habit of using sticks and stones, and of building shelters, evolved intelligence. Man and the anthropoid, therefore, branched off in different directions, from a common ancestor, through many centuries of evolution and development; the gap between civilized and savage man being greater than that between the savage and the anthropoid ape.

We must bear in mind that between the various periods just mentioned, thousands and perhaps millions of years elapsed, so that the evolution of the different species was a very gradual process, and did not take place in the rapid manner in which man has, by artificial selection and isolation, evolved the carrier-pigeon, the race-horse, and the various kinds of dogs; many thousands of years doubtless elapsing before mammals were evolved from previously existing animals, and placentals from them. But "it does not follow that evolution and civilization are always on the move, or that their movements are always progressive on the contrary, history teaches that they may remain stationary for long periods," [E.B. Taylor, "Anthropology."] devolution or falling back sometimes occurring. Examples of the degeneration of species are the modern Portuguese of the East Indies, the Digger Indians of the Rocky Mountains, and the ancient Egyptians, Babylonians, and Chaldeans, whose monuments and inscriptions show how ancient and how high was their civilization. And all countries do not progress in the same ratio of civilization. It is related that Captain Cook, on visiting the South Sea Islanders, found them using only stone hatchets and knives, showing that they had not progressed beyond the stone age.

POLARITY

This is a theory propounded by Mr. S. Laing, but is not yet universally accepted as a truth. He says: "Polarity, part of the original impress, is the great underlying law of all knowable phenomena, conscience, morals, free will, and determination, The material universe is built up by the cause out of atoms and energies by means of a polarity which makes them combine, and pass from the simple and homogeneous into the complex and heterogeneous, in a course of constant change and evolution; we know not how nor why."

THE ASCENT OF MAN

The development of man from the tiny ovule of the human ovary is simply a recapitulation of his evolution from the structureless atom of protoplasm from which all organic life originally sprang. "Exactly in those respects in which developing man differs from the dog, he resembles the ape ... It is only in the later stages of development that the young human being presents marked differences from the young ape, while the latter departs as much from the dog in its development as the man does, Startling as this may appear, it is demonstrably true, and it alone is sufficient to place beyond all doubt the structural unity of man with the rest of the animal world, and more particularly and closely with the apes. Thus identical in the physical processes by which he originates; identical in the early stages of his formation; identical, in the mode of his nutrition before and after birth, with the animals which lie immediately below him in the scale; man, if his adult and perfect structure be compared with theirs, exhibits a marvelous likeness of organization. He resembles them as they resemble one another; he differs from them as they differ from one another." [T.H. Huxley, "Man's Place in Nature."] There is an "all-pervading similitude of structure" [Professor Owen.] between man and the anthropoid apes.

We have seen man gradually emerging from the primitive condition of Tertiary times as tree-dweller, cave-dweller, and lake-dweller; using stone implements with which to protect himself and obtain food in the old Stone Age (the Paleolithic), and flint implements in the new Stone Age (the Neolithic); and we have seen his evolution from the man-like ape to the ape-like man (the Alali of Haeckel), and from ape-like man to savage man (Homo ferox); from savage man to semi-civilized man (Homo semi-ferox) of the Neolithic period; and to civilized man (Homo cultus) of the Bronze Age; reaching, eventually, by his higher development of brain, to the highest position of animal (Homo sapiens), of the Iron Age. When in his hybrid condition, he possessed a long head (dolichocephalic), small, ill-developed brain, prognathous jaws, and prominent orbital ridges; was of medium stature, and had great thickness of bones, denoting great muscular strength. From this condition he gradually acquired a round (mesocephalic) head, well developed brain, a less protrusive chin and mouth, and arms shorter than legs. He has a bigger forehead, smaller cheek-bones, and supra-orbital ridges, a true chin, and more uniform teeth, with less conspicuous canines than apes. Man alone, after his infancy is past, walks thoroughly upright. Though his head is weighted by a heavy brain, it does not droop forward, and it is probably to this fact that his perfect development of vocal mechanism is due. The ape is subject, as we have seen, to similar diseases as man various traits of gesture, expression, etc., are similar in both and both are liable to reversions and monstrosities. But, man being so far superior in many ways to any species below him in animal life, probably due to his higher development of vocal power, the idea would naturally suggest itself to him in his early state of civilization that he was too perfect a piece of mechanism to have been evolved from a lower species; and he would, consequently, build up stories of his instantaneous creation, which resulted in the Genesis fable, and which have been perpetuated by the subsequent theologies. But we must not imagine that man is a later development of the ape, for it is clearly demonstrated that man could not have been evolved from any known anthropoid ape; but it is probable that he arose from an ancestral stock common to both (Alali) of the order of Primates, when the anthropoid apes were known to have existed as a distinct race, which takes us back to the Miocene age. In the struggle of primitive man intelligence was of more use than strength. "When the habits of using sticks and stones, of building shelters, and of living in families began -- and they have already began among apes -- it is likely that wits would grow rapidly. The prolonged infancy characteristic of the human offspring would help to evolve gentleness. But even more important is the fact that among apes there are distinct societies. Families combine for protection -- the combination favors the development of emotional and intellectual strength." [J.A. Thomson, "Zoology."] Man did not make society, society made man. All repugnance to the doctrine of descent, as applied to man, should disappear when we clearly realize the great axiom of evolution, that "there is nothing in the end which was not also in the beginning."

Primitive man is believed to have been evolved in the submerged continent of Lemuria, which was supposed to have existed where the Indian Ocean now is, and to have joined Africa and the island of Madagascar to the continent of Arabia and Hindostan. The heads of the early ape-like men were of the same character as those of the chimpanzee and gorilla -- dolichocephalic and prognathous, and they were, like apes, cave-dwellers (troglodytes). In the limestone caverns of France have been discovered the fossil remains of men who inhabited caves and belonged to the Paleolithic or Pleistocene period. [J.A. Thompson, "Zoology."] Rough, unpolished stone implements and weapons were found with them. In the strata of a later period have been found stone implements of a lighter make and better finish; also spear-points made of horn, probably for killing game, and skin-scrapers, probably for preparing skins for clothing; for, with the development and civilization of man as a cave-dweller, a finer and less heavy skin would naturally be gradually developed, thus necessitating clothing in the case of those who had wandered away from tropical regions into colder ones.

In the strata of a still later period than the paleolithic, admirably proportioned lancer-shaped implements of flint have been found, suitable for arrows, javelins, and lances. And, later still, arrows, darts of deer's horn, and bone appear; also stone and flint tools, evidently used for making the above, But not one polished implement or fragment of pottery has been found within that period. "The mammoth still tenanted the valleys, and the reindeer was the common article of food; they (paleolithic man) were hunters and possessors of the rudest modes of existence, and with but little of what is now called civilization." [S. Laing, "Human Origans."]

In Kent's cavern, near Torquay, in England, has been found the fossil of a human jaw buried in stalagmite, containing four teeth. This was found lying in the strata of the paleolithic age, below remains of extinct animals; while below all were bone and stone (unpolished) implements of human workmanship. In the cave of Engis, in the valley of the Meuse, has been found part of a skull of a man of low degree of civilization, and of limited intellectual faculties. And in the cave of Neanderthal, in Belgium, a skeleton was found which has attracted much attention by its singularly brutal appearance; and appears to be the nearest approach yet found to the missing link between man and the anthropoid ape. The cranium is human, but the super-orbital ridges are thick, prominent, and ape-like. A human skull has also been found beneath four different layers of forest-growth, dating at least 50,000 years ago.

In the neolithic or new stone age the implements and weapons of man which have been discovered are polished; pottery has been found, and evidences of the use of fire, showing that man was gradually adopting some form of social life. In this age are found lake dwellings, which would lead us to infer that his intellect was not sufficiently developed to enable him to protect himself from the invasion of wild animals in a simpler manner.

It is not surprising that so few specimens of primeval human remains have been discovered, when we consider the enormous lapse of time through which the evolution of man has proceeded, and the natural tendency to the extinction of the various grades of life between them, by the irresistible pressure of civilized man. The Caribs of Tasmania have, for instance, become extinct; while Australians, New Zealanders, aboriginal Americans, Eskimos, and others, are also becoming extinct. A far greater physical and mental interval is found to exist between a Hottentot -- whose language consists of a series of clicks -- or a hairy Ainu of Yesso, who are described as being "hardly above wild beasts," and a cultivated European, than exists between the Hottentot or the Ainu and the anthropoid ape.

Man is now classed in the sub-class Anthropoidea, of the order of mammalia, which consists of New World platyrhines (monkeys), Old World catarhines (apes and baboons), and man. Primitive man separated into two families: 1. The woolly-haired, all dolichocephalic, migrated west and south, and evolved the Papuans of New Guinea and Tasmania; (1) the Hottentots of South Africa, who even now differ but little from the anthropoid apes, having dark yellow hairy skins, long thin arms, short ill-developed legs, and largely-developed buttocks; are semi-erect, and have inarticulate, clicking speech (2) the negro of higher development than the Hottentot; and (3) the Caffre of higher development again than the negro, but having imperfect speech. All are savages. II. The straight-haired; migrated south and east, and evolved; (i) the Australians, dolicliocephalic and prognathous with smooth dark brown skins, but articulate speech. These gradually separated into (2) Mongolian or Turanian, and (3) Caucasian or Iranian. The Mongolians occupied the North and East of Asia, Polynesia, and America; were brachycephalic (broad-headed) and prognathous. These subdivided into Mongols of China, Japan, Lapland, Finland, Hungary, and the Malays or Dyaks of Borneo, with smooth, brownish yellow skins, and the Mongols of America, with smooth red skins -- both classes remained brachycephalic, but lost the prognathous character. The Caucasian occupied Western Asia and most of Europe, were mesocephalic (medium length of skull), prognathous, and cave- dwellers, becoming subsequently agriculturalists with smooth dark skins. These subdivided into the Senates of Arabia and Syria, and the Aryan or Indo-European, both being mesocephalic, but not prognathous.

DISSOLUTION AND DEATH

For a definition of dissolution we cannot do better than quote Mr. Spencer. It is "the absorption of motion and the concomitant disintegration" (or separation of particles) "of matter ... the change from the heterogeneous to the homogeneous. Precisely where evolution ends dissolution begins, and their point of impact" (or collision) "is equilibration." When the animating principle, or vital force, leaves the body, and life ceases to exist in its active and corporate form, death is said to take place; it is the final equilibration which precedes dissolution, the bringing to a close of all those conspicuous integrated motions that arose during evolution. The conspicuous effects of the changes that occur at death are: "First, the impulsions of the body from place to place cease; then, the limbs cannot be stirred; later, the respiratory actions stop; finally, the heart becomes stationary, and, with it, the circulating fluids." [H. Spencer.] The body, by a process of decomposition and disintegration, breaks up into molecules and atoms, which disperse themselves as gases in and to the ethereal medium, and a residue as ashes to the earth, whence they originated, in all probability becoming eventually constituents in other bodies. All life preys and feeds upon each other; and all matter is indestructible and eternal. Death is thus seen to be simply a change of form. "The transformation of molecular motion into the motion of masses comes to an end; and each of the motions of masses in a body, as it ends, disappears into molecular motions ... The process of decay involves an increase of insensible movements; since these are far greater in the gases generated by decomposition than they are in the fluid-solid matters out of which the gases arise. Each of the complex chemical units composing an organic body possesses a rhythmic motion in which its many component units jointly partake. When decomposition breaks up these complex molecules, and their constituents assume gaseous forms, there is, besides that increase of motion implied by the diffusion, a resolution of such motions as the aggregate molecules possessed into motions of their constituent molecules." Of one thing we may be certain -- viz., that no conduct on our part can in any way affect the future of the breath or life which leaves us. Whatever rewards or punishments may be ours, they are of this world. "In view of, the termination of our present form of organic existence, we can calmly resign ourselves to the inevitable lot of all organic nature, feeling that we have done what we could in our brief consciousness, and that, even as the rivers return to the Ocean whence they came, so we return to the bosom of universal nature, safe in her eternal embrace." [J. Badcock.]

MORALITY

Morality is the practice of a certain mode of conduct in our principles and actions in social life, the result of social intercourse. Man, when he forsook his primitive and solitary life, and by the desire for companionship -- the outcome of love and sympathy -- adapted himself to a community life, by which cooperation with his fellows became necessary, gradually acquired a knowledge of right and wrong. Experience taught him that what was for the good of the community was right, and that what was not for the good of the community was wrong. Social life without some system of morality could not exist; for without it there could be no confidence, and without confidence no happiness. This knowledge of right and wrong has become of universal obligation, and the standard by which morality is estimated.

Morality has been patronized by theology to such an extent, adopted by it as its own offspring, and imposed upon the public as such, that people have come to think that morality cannot exist without theology, and are unable to understand any severance between them taking place, without the annihilation of the former. This is a mistaken notion, fostered by theological exponents for their own interests. Morality is not dependent upon theology in any of its many forms for its existence, and probably existed for centuries before the idea of a personal God took possession of the mind of man -- in fact, when community life first commenced. Theology is a comparatively modern abnormal excrescence upon morality, and has substituted an evil motive for a good one, a selfish one for an unselfish one -- the fear of displeasing an arbitrary, capricious, and despotic deity, with the accompanying loss of the promised reward -- instead of the good of our fellows and of the community at large; virtue consisting in being ready to do violence to feelings and reason with child-like submission, to please the deity and satisfy his mere will; vice being estimated by the extent of the opposition to the will of the deity, and of the anger aroused in him; proportionate punishment in a future world acting as a restraint to human conduct, instead of the punishments of this world.

Now, true morality -- i.e., the morality the outcome of human love and sympathy, which are the bases of co-operation -- will be seen to be of a much higher and purer form, for it is the product of unselfishness and the feeling of "goodwill towards others," "doing as you would be done by," with the only reward of reciprocated love and regard of our fellows in this world; doing right because it is right, and avoiding evil because it is evil. Virtue is not limited to merely abstaining from the healthy exercise of those natural functions of the body which the various theologies appear to lay so much stress upon, the desire to satisfy which is inherent in, and part of, the nature of all animal and vegetal life; and the repression of which in human life, to satisfy the arbitrary will of an imaginary deity, is both physically and morally injurious, and productive of disease -- but is general moral goodness. The good feeling in man, together with State legislation, are quite sufficient to restrain and control human conduct and actions, and to act as a protection to marital and other rights.

The regard for goodness is increased and intensified by practice and education -- not mere book education, but the acquisition of general knowledge; for it is by this and the exercise of reason and moral judgment that we know right from wrong; that we know that "what a man sows, that will he reap: if he sows good, he will reap pleasure; and if he sows evil, he will reap pain." By intensifying the habit of choosing the one and avoiding the other, man ennobles himself and his human nature; the knowledge of having faithfully accomplished which, in life, enables him to satisfy his conscience, that, when his time arrives, he may be able to meet death with that fearless composure and fortitude which is the inheritance of all who through life have lived truly and loved their fellow men.

THE UNIVERSE

By the universe (Greek, kosmos) we understand to be meant that portion of the heavens which is visible from our earth, containing the sun, moons, planets, stars, etc. The universe is a huge manifestation of phenomena, and is crowded with life and activity. It is made up of matter and motion, in space and time.

MATTER, the ultimate nature of which is unknown, comprises all substances that occupy space and affect the senses, is a fixed quantity, indestructible and eternal. It is manifest in three states -- solid, liquid, and gaseous. The smallest and indivisible particles of matter are called atoms or chemical units; these, in combination and forming the smallest compound bodies, are called molecules or mechanical units. Matter may be visible and ponderable like the stars and other bodies distributed throughout space, or invisible and imponderable as the ether which fills the intervals between the particles and the space in which the bodies are distributed.

MOTION is matter in the act of changing place through space and time; it is produced or destroyed, quickened or retarded, increased or lessened, by two indestructible powers of opposite nature -- Force and Energy, both derived from the sun's heat.

FORCE, the attracting power, is inherent in, and can never be taken from, the ponderable matter, every atom possessing the tendency to attract other atoms, or resist any separating power. When it attracts atoms it is called chemical affinity, when molecules -- cohesion, and when masses -- gravitation. Force is constant, and its several qualities are grouped under one doctrine called "the Persistence of Force."

ENERGY, the repelling, separating, or pushing power, is also a fixed quantity, but is not bound up with matter, but can be transferred from atom to atom, or from mass to mass, and stored up. It may be Passive or potential, like that existing in gunpowder when quiescent; or active or kinetic, like that existing in the same during the act of explosion. The qualities of convertibility and indestructibility constitute the doctrine of "Conservation of Energy."

"We think in relations ... relation is the universal form of thought ... Relations are of two orders -- those of sequence and those of coexistence ... The abstract of all sequences is time, and that of all co-existences is space. Time is inseparable from sequence, and space from co-existence." [H. Spencer.]

SPACE is the interval between objects. "We know space as an ability to contain bodies." It is extension considered in its own nature, without regard to anything it may contain, or that may be external to it. It always remains the same, is infinite, and is incapable of resistance or motion.

TIME is the measure of duration, and the general idea of successive existence. It may be absolute or relative. Absolute time is considered without any relation to bodies or their motions. Relative time is the sensible measure of any portion of duration, often marked by particular phenomena. Time is measured by equable motion. We judge those times to be equal which pass while a moving body, proceeding with a uniform motion, passes over equal spaces.

As matter is indestructible and eternal, so nothing is created; everything has been evolved from something else existing before. The universe is supposed to have been evolved from a cosmic nebulous matter or dust, of tremendous extent, within the atoms of which existed the power to evolve all that now is -- sun, moons, planets, etc., our earth, and all that is thereon -- seas, mountains, animal and vegetal life, and eventually man, although millions of years passed before man was evolved from the lowest form of animal life. The force inherent in each atom of this dust combined the atoms into molecules, by cohesive power united molecules into masses; and by gravitation these masses revolved round their several centers of gravity, and thus formed suns and various other planetary bodies. As the atoms rushed together, rotatory and orbital motion was produced, and a vibratory motion, which became converted into the radiant energy of heat and light. As contraction went on, portions of our sun became detached from the bulging equator, and, flying off into space, gradually, by the attraction of force, formed compact bodies, becoming independent planets, one of which is our earth. The moon is supposed to have been detached from our earth in a similar manner. It is estimated that it is a hundred million years since the earth sufficiently solidified and cooled to support vegetable and animal life. Sir W. Herschell has discovered, by the telescope, worlds and systems in the course of present formation, as described above.

THE EARTH

The earth, which was imagined by the ancients to be flat, and surrounded by water, "Oceans," is nearly spherical in shape, being slightly flattened at the poles, and bulged towards the equator. It consists of a core, at an intense heat within a rocky covering or crust, three-fourths of which is covered by water, and the whole is surrounded by an atmosphere reaching in height to from forty to fifty miles. The entire mass -- solid, liquid, and gaseous -- spins on its own axis or polar diameter, making an entire revolution in 23 hours, 56 minutes, and revolves through space along a certain undeviating course called the plane of the ecliptic round the sun at the rate of 1,000 miles a minute, making the complete revolution in 165 days and 6 hours. The space through which the earth revolves consists of ether. The earth is not upright while travelling along its annual journey, but inclines always in one direction at an angle of 23 degrees; in summer with its north pole towards the sun, and in winter with the north pole away from the sun, which has the effect of producing the seasons. The annual passage of the earth round the sun describes, not a circle, but an ellipse. When the portion of the earth which we inhabit is turned towards the sun we call it day, it being night in the other portion which is turned away from the sun. The inequality of day and night during different periods of the year is due to the inclination of the axis of the earth, as explained above.

THE ATMOSPHERE in which we live is composed chiefly of the uncombined elements of oxygen and nitrogen water being composed of oxygen and hydrogen in combination. It is supposed to reach to from forty-five to fifty miles, the exact distance being uncertain. It is difficult to conceive, with the above knowledge, where Jesus could have ascended to, what planet he visited, or how he could have resisted the law of gravitation; it is for Christians to explain these matters.

THE CRUST OF THE EARTH consists of rock -- hard granite, loose sand, ore veined with metal, and mud -- unstratified and stratified. The unstratified, igneous, or plutonic rocks are those which are nearest the center of the earth, and which have been fused together by heat, or erupted from the interior by means of volcanic agency. The stratified, aqueous, or neptunic rocks are those which have been deposited as sediment by the action of water or atmosphere; or which are due to the growth and decay of plants and animals. The various strata of these have been divided, for convenience, into epochs, periods, ages, etc., each having its typical remains associated with it; and it is from the discoveries of these that the age and origin of man have been estimated. Where these stratified rocks are found to have become changed into a crystallized state by the action of heat and pressure, resulting in the efficenient of their original character, and in the destruction of traces of any organic (plant or animal) remains in them, they are called metamorphic. Occasional volcanic outbursts and earthquakes show us that the original store of energy which the earth acquired during the aggregation of the particles of which it is built up, in their passage from a diffused nebulous (cloudy) state to one of increasing density, under the action of the force of gravitation, is not yet lost; and the escape of that energy, through the crust of the ethereal medium, is continued, and its final dissipation into space is, therefore, only a question of time.

GEOLOGICAL EPOCHS, PERIODS, etc., during which the stratified rocks were deposited: --

The Primary Epoch: --

 

Plutonic period ... Conflict of inorganic forces. No life.

Laurentian period ... Monerae, then Amoebae.

Cambrian period ... Sponges, shell fish.

Silurian period ... Fishes, sea worms.

Devonian period ... Insect feeders and air breathers.

Carborliferous period ... Frogs, crocodiles, beetles.

Permian period ... Reptiles.

 

The Secondary Epoch : --

 

Triassic period ... Pouched mammals.

Jurassic period ... Huge reptiles of sea, land, air, and

birds.

Cretaceous period ... Bony skeletoned fishes; Ammonites.

 

The Tertiary Epoch: --

 

Eocene period ... Huge placental mammals, and probably man.

Miocene period ... Hoofed quadrupeds, anthropoid apes.

Pliocene period ... Bears, hyenas.

 

The Quaternary Epoch: --

 

Glacial period, or Ice Age ... Positive age of (hybrid) man.

Paleolithic period ... Stone Age Savage man.

Neolithic period ... Stone Age Semi-civilized man.

Recent Bronze Age ... Civilized man.

Recent Iron Age ... Civilized man.

 

The Present Epoch (Historic Era): --

 

Superstitious period or Theological Age.

Scientific period.

The Tertiary epoch is dated at not less than 5,000,000 years ago, and the Quaternary at not less than 1,000,000 years ago.

THE SOLAR SYSTEM

The solar system consists of the sun and the following large planets revolving round it, in the order of distance from the sun: -- Mercury, 35 million miles distant; Venus, 66 million; the Earth, 91 million; Mars, 139 million; Jupiter, 476 million; Saturn, 872 million; Uranus, 1,754 million; and Neptune, 2,746 million miles from the sun. Also ninety-seven smaller or minor planets revolving round the sun between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, called asteroids. Also meteors, shooting stars, comets, and moons or satellites to some of the larger planets, Jupiter having five, Saturn eight, Uranus four, Neptune one, and our Earth one. These constituents of the Solar System float at various velocities in an ethereal medium called "The Heavens."

THE SUN consists of a nucleus of burning gaseous matter, surrounded by envelopes called the Photosphere and the Chromosphere, outside which is the mysterious corona "whose delicate silver radiance forms the glorious nimbus of a total eclipse." Being the nearest star to the earth, it radiates light, heat, and energy to our planet. It revolves on its own axis in space, which inclines towards the point of the zodiac occupied by the earth in, September. It does not occupy the center of the ellipse described by the earth, but one of the foci, being nearer to the earth in winter than in summer. Its diameter is estimated as being one hundred times larger than the earth, though it is by no means the largest of the stars, and its distance from our earth is estimated at 91 million miles.

THE PLANETS are more or less burnt-out bodies revolving round the sun in nearly circular orbits. Some, like our Earth and Mars, have cooled down sufficiently to be covered by a hard crust and to be fit abodes for living creatures. others, like Jupiter, are still in a more or less heated and partly self-luminous condition. But the majority of the planets are cold and non-luminous, like our airless, silent, barren moon; and what light they give is reflected.

THE MOONS have no atmospheres, and accompany their several planets in their revolutions round the sun. Our moon or satellite makes one half of its journey round the earth, above the plane of the ecliptic and the other below, the whole occupying 29 1/2 days. Its distance from us is estimated at about 240 thousand miles.

THE STARS are white hot, luminous bodies; the nearest one is more than 19 thousand million miles away, and the more distant ones so far off that light, which travels at the rate of 186 thousand miles in a second of time, requires 50 thousand years to dart from the stars to the eyes of man.

THE SEASONS. -- During that part of the elliptical journey of the earth round the sun when the axis of the earth inclines away from the sun, winter commences (the solstice or standing still); when its axis inclines towards the sun, at the other end of the journey, summer commences; when the earth arrives (roughly) half- way between these two points, on either side, spring and autumn (the equinoxes, equal day and night) commence respectively, these being the nearest distances, in the plane of the ecliptic between the earth and the sun. Spring commences at the vernal equinox (the commencement of the annual cycle of the ancient zodiac), when the sun appears to enter that constellation of the zodiac called "Aries" (March 21st). Summer commences at the summer solstice, when the sun appears to enter "Cancer," the longest day, June 21St. Autumn commences at the autumnal equinox, when the sun appears to enter "Libra" (September 23rd). Winter commences at the winter solstice, when the sun appears to enter "Capricorns," the shortest day, December 21St.

THE ANCIENT ZODIAC

The names of the ancient signs of the zodiac in Latin are: --

The Ram, the Bull, the Heavenly Twins,

And next the Crab the Lion shines,

The Virgin and the Scales,

The Scorpion, Archer, and He-goat,

The Man that bears the watering-pot,

And Fish with glittering tails.

The equinoxial points (Aries and Libra) moved fifty degrees westward every year; thus the signs became separated from their corresponding constellations, the vernal equinoxial sign being the first in the time of Hipparchus (2nd century B.C.). In 25,868 years all the signs would have made a complete circuit. The groups of stars in the different signs or constellations were named after some fancied resemblance to animals or other objects of nature. And the sun, in his supposed annual passage through the twelve signs, was worshipped in his different forms. The Lion represented the sun when at his fierce summer strength; the Balance, when the days and nights are equal; the Water-pourer, the commencement of the Monsoon, or period of torrential rain; and so on. The ancient zodiac was arranged on the theory that the earth was flat and immovable, and that the sun made an annual circuit round it.

 

ETHICS AND CUSTOMS OF SOCIAL LIFE

DUTY AND FAULT

The science of ethics treats of moral duty and obligation. Primitive man, from a solitary and selfish tree-dweller, through long ages of time gradually became more social by companionizing and cooperating with his fellows, by which were gradually evolved sympathy, love, and generosity. Through further ages of time, as civilization and refinement increased, the requirements of life increased, and the dependence upon each other became more marked. Man thus, by cooperation, took upon himself a duty which he had not exercised in his primitive condition. Cooperation necessitated protection to life and property, which again necessitated the formulation of laws for the binding of each other to the observance of certain rules of conduct, and for the good government of communities. And, however much these may vary in detail in different countries and in different ages, there is a general code universally admitted and received which always exists, which has been found by experience to be necessary for the protection of cooperation, and, therefore, for the preservation of free social intercourse. From cooperation, then, springs the whole duty of man and wherever there is duty there may be neglect of duty.

Duty may be civil and compulsory, or moral and voluntary. The former is an obligation to comply with the statutory law of the country, the failure to comply with which is more or less penal. The latter is the outcome of a natural desire to do right, because it is right, and to comply with the usages of society (in its broad and general sense) and the conventionalities of life. The moral duty of the theologian or religionist differs both in motive and in scope from the rewardless duty of free men -- i.e., men free from the trammels of theology, as above described. The extra duties which the theologian recognizes, by virtue of his creed, are prescribed by the dogmas of theology, and supposed to be related to a deity or deities; the violation of these duties being called "sin." The motive is one of fear, lest he should arouse, by his neglect of duty, the anger of his deity, and so feel the force of his vengeance after death in the fires of hell; or hope, if he pleases his deity, of gaining the reward of heaven. The free man has no fear of future punishment, nor hope of any reward, to act as a stimulus to good conduct, beyond that of this world -- viz., a good conscience. His morality is, therefore, of purer order. He knows that, as he sows, so will be reap; that, by living his life here on earth in sympathy with his fellows, doing his duty to the best of his knowledge and ability, and producing happiness for those around him, he is ennobling that body with which his life is bound up, and is thus perfecting his human nature.

Faults, misconduct, or wrong-doing may be of omission (neglect of duty) or commission (actions), and may be (1) against the written laws of the State, consisting of various legal distinctions and technical terms, such as "misdemeanor," "felony," "larceny" (theft), "crime," etc., being more or less penal, i.e., punishable by the State; and (2) against the unwritten law of social life which concerns conduct, manners, customs, etc., which are found by experience to be necessary and good. The latter are voluntary, and are dependent upon man's conscience or knowledge of right and wrong, and may consist of faults against society (in its broad sense) -- i.e., his fellow men, and faults against himself.

We must bear in mind that, though many faults against society are not penal -- i.e., punishable by any recognized system or code -- yet there are punishments which during life follow wrong-doing; for if we sow evil we shall sooner or later reap evil, and if we sow good we shall reap good. The consciousness of having done wrong, and the remorse which follows it, will haunt the mind in its quiet moments. Good men and women aspire after good, some with better results than others. Knowing the frailty of our natures, never let it be said that the stronger and more resolute, and, therefore, the more successful in avoiding evil, has cast a stone, as it were, at the weaker.

MAN'S MORAL CODE

MAXIMS

1. In our moral conduct, to act towards others as we wish others to act towards us.

2. To love our fellow-creatures.

3. To practice truth in word and deed.

4. To practice temperance in appetite or desire.

5. To practice thrift and economy.

6. To give offence to no one.

7. To encourage our good and restrain our evil impulses.

8. To obey the just laws of our country.

Maxim 2 induces us: To bear no malice, and forgive injuries; to be kind to children and dumb animals, and prevent cruelty to them; to sympathize with those in trouble; to comfort the sick and afflicted; to discourage slavery; while being kind to the poor and deserving, to discourage idleness and mendacity; to avoid attributing unjust or bad motives to the actions of others; to exercise as much care for the reputation of others as for our own; to be peacemakers, and discourage quarrels and dissensions, though everyone is justified in defending himself and his country; to respect the lives, property, and opinions of others; to show respect for the dead; to practice civility and courtesy to all, hospitality to strangers, and consideration to foreigners; to encourage industry and education, and work for the support of ourselves, our families, and those lawfully dependent upon us; to produce happiness to all.

Maxim 3 induces us: To avoid all pretence in life, deceptions in business, and adulteration of food and drink.

Maxim 5 induces us: To practice reasonable economy of resources, by avoiding excess or undue expenditure of goods, substance, or vital force; to be cleanly in habits and person.

Maxim 7 induces us: To exercise, and so strengthen, the faculties in man that are social and sympathetic: and to leave unexercised, and so weaken, those faculties the functions of which are adverse to social life.

Maxim 8 induces us: To help in the enforcement of the just laws of our country, which are necessary for the protection of rights, and for the proper conduct and well-being of the community; to assist in obtaining the repeal of partial and unjust laws, instituted in the interests of faction or party, and against civil and religious liberty.

MAXIMS FOR PARENTS

1. To love and be true to each other; to exercise that mutual forbearance without which two people cannot live their lives together in that happy union which alone can sustain domestic happiness and command the respect of their children.

2. To maintain and encourage filial obedience and respect from children to their parents; and to discourage excessive parental indulgence.

3. To feed, clothe, and educate their children.

MAXIMS FOR CHILDREN

1. Love and obey your parents, teachers, and elders.

2. Always speak the truth.

3. Do not quarrel.

4. Do not take what is not your own, for that is stealing.

5. Be diligent at your lessons.

6. Do as you would be done by. "Do naught to others which, if done to thee, would cause thee pain; this is the sum of duty." [From the "Maha-bharata," an Indian epic poem, written six centuries B.C.]

VERSES FOR CHILDREN

I

Little drops of water,

Little grains of sand,

Make the mighty ocean

And the pleasant land.

Thus the little moments,

Humble though they be,

Make the mighty ocean

Of eternity.

Thus our little errors

Make a mighty sin:

Drop by drop the evil

Floods the heart within.

Little drops of kindness,

Little words of love,

Make the earth an Eden

Like a heaven of love.

--E.C. Brewer.

II

Ne'er suffer thine eyes to close

Before thy mind hath run

O'er every act and thought and word,

From dawn to set of sun.

For wrong take shame, but grateful feel

If just thy course hath been;

Such efforts made each day by day

Will ward thyself from sin.

--Adopted from Pythagoras.

III

May duty be my guide to-day,

May love and truth illume the way,

May nothing warp or stain the soul,

May noble aims the will control.

--Gustav Spiller

IV

Wound not another, though by him provoked;

Do no one injury by thought or deed;

Utter no word to pain thy fellow creatures.

Treat no one with disdain; with patience bear

Reviling language; with an angry man

Be never angry; blessings give for curses.

E'en as a driver checks his restive steeds,

Do thou, if thou art wise, restrain thy passions,

Which, running wild, will hurry thee away.

--By an Indian writer, Manu, six centuries B.C.

GRACE is a short prayer used by Christians before and after meals. The word is derived from the Latin "gratis," favor. All foods, as well as other necessaries of life, are supposed by them (but really believed by few) to be provided by favor of the deity. But had not human hands or brains been brought to bear upon the Christian meal, we may accept it as a moral certainty that no meal would have been provided. The Rationalist, knowing full well that his meals and everything he possesses depend either upon his own exertions or upon other mundane circumstances, sees no necessity to thank anyone, especially some invisible entity of which he knows nothing, for what he has himself provided. It is customary, however, at public dinners to offer some congratulation to those present before enjoying the meal. The Rationalist may find the following useful, in the event of a grace being called for: -- "May good digestion wait on appetite, and health on both." If a clergyman be present, it is an act of courtesy to offer him an opportunity of saying a "grace," on the principle that everyone has the right of his opinion; and it by no means follows that all present are in agreement with those opinions. By thus respecting the opinion of others, we are carrying out the true spirit of freedom of thought. The clergyman of a State Church generally takes precedence of those of the free denominations, but only as an act of courtesy, he being an official in the ecclesiastical department of the State. A Cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church usually takes precedence over all other clergy. Why???

SOCIETIES OF INTEREST TO RATIONALISTS

THE UNION OF ETHICAL SOCIETIES (Hon. Sec., Miss Zona Vallance, The Deanery, Stratford, Essex.) -- These consist of the following:

Ethical Societies. Place of Afeering.

 

THE NORTH LONDON

 

THE SOUTH LONDON Surrey Masonic Hall,

Camberwell New

Road, S.E.

 

THE EAST LONDON ... 78, Libra Road,

Roman Road, E.

 

THE WEST LONDON ...Town Hall, High

Street, Kensington.

Leighton House, 9,

Leighton Crescent, N.W.

 

THE PROVINCIAL COR- Mr. F. J. Gould,

RESPONDENCE COM- 12, Meynell Road,

MITTEE Hackney Common, N.E.

The general aims of the Ethical Movement, as represented by this federation, are: --

1. By purely natural and human means to assist individual and social efforts after right living.

2. To free the current ideal of what is right from all that is merely traditional or self-contradictory, and thus to widen and perfect it.

3. To assist in constructing a theory or science of Right, which, starting with the reality and validity of moral distinctions, shall explain their mental and social origin, and connect them in a logical system of thought.

The special objects of the federation are: --

1. To bring into closer connection the federated Societies.

2. To provide for the special training of Ethical teachers and lecturers.

3. To start, take over, and to control Ethical classes for children, with or without the assistance of local committees.

4. To provide for the payment of teachers and lecturers.

5. To choose and dismiss teachers and lecturers, whether paid or voluntary.

6. To publish and spread suitable literature.

7. And to further such other objects as may commend themselves from time to time to the Union.

THE NATIONAL SECULAR SOCIETY, whose motto is "We Seek for Truth," has its offices at 376 and 377, Strand, W. President, Mr. G.W. Foote; Hon. Sec., Mr. R. Forder.

THE RATIONALIST PRESS COMMITTEE has its headquarters at 17, Johnson's Court, Fleet Street, London, E.C. Its objects are:

1. To issue, or assist in the issue of Rationalist publications.

2. To carry on a systematic distribution of Rationalist literature. Chairman, Mr. G.J. Holyoake; Secretary and Treasurer, Charles A. Watts, from whom all information may be obtained.

THE NATIONAL SUNDAY LEAGUE is a society for the promotion of recreation and amusement on Sundays, and for the removal of restrictions to the opening of public museums, picture galleries, etc., on Sundays. Secretary, Mr. H. Mills, 34, Red Lion Square, Holborn, W.C.

PUBLIC HOLIDAYS AND THEIR ORIGIN

SUNDAY, the first day of the week, commemorates the weekly festival of the sun, the planet whose glorious rays give us life, health, delight, and happiness.

EASTER commemorates the vernal equinox, when the sun crosses the equator, and the days become longer than the nights, and daily increase in length; also the return of verdure, and the bursting forth of the seed. It is, by arrangement, the first Sunday after the full moon, which happens upon, or next after, March 21st; and if the moon is at full on a Sunday, Easter day is the Sunday after.

MAYDAY commemorates nature's profusion of flowers and blossom, which has from early times found expression in dance and song, and which instinctively excites feelings of gladness and delight. In Rome the goddess Flora was specially venerated at this season, which custom has its modern representation in "the May Queen."

WHIT MONDAY. -- The Monday after Pentecost, which is seven weeks after Easter, So-called from the white garments worn by the newly-baptized Catechumens in the Christian Church, which rite took place on the vigil of Pentecost. The holiday has outlived the religious association out of which it originated. Pentecost was a Jewish feast, held on the fiftieth day after the Passover, in celebration of their "Ingathering," and in thanksgiving for their harvest. The Christian Church adopted it from the Jews, and celebrated the supposed descent of the "Holy Ghost," one of the gods of the Trinity, on the Yezuan apostles.

MIDSUMMER DAY (June 24th) commemorates the event of the sun having attained his highest point in the heavens, and our northern hemisphere being under the influence of the greatest effulgence of his rays.

LAMMAS MONDAY, or HARVEST FESTIVAL, is the first Monday after "Lammas Day" (August 1st), and is kept as a holiday or "festival of the ingathering." It derives its name of Lammas from a superstitious offering in early times of the first fruits of the harvest to the various deities.

CHRISTMAS DAY commemorates the birthday of the new sun -- when the sun, after descending to its lowest point in the heavens, and after our northern hemisphere has been travelling away from the sun and getting less of his rays daily, commences his return journey, and daily rises higher in the heavens. It is also the birthday of all the messiahs of the various revealed religions.

BANK HOLIDAYS -- ENGLAND AND WALES: Good Friday, Whitsun Monday, Lammas Monday, Christmas Day, and the day following; or, if that day be Sunday, then Monday. The Stock Exchange have, in addition to the above, May Day and November 1st. SCOTLAND: New Year's Day, Good Friday, the first Mondays in May and August, and Christmas; Day.

THE NAMING AND REGISTRATION OF CHILDREN

When a birth takes place, personal information of it must be given, free of charge, within six weeks, to the Registrar; by (1) the father or mother; if they fail (2) the occupier of the house in which the birth happened; (3) a person present at the birth; or (4) the person having charge of the child: The penalty for not registering within the time specified is 2 pounds. A written request may be sent to the Registrar to come to the house and register the child, for which he receives a fee of 1s. After three months, a birth cannot be registered except in the presence of the Superintendent Registrar, and on payment of fees to him and to the Registrar. After one year, a birth can be registered only on the Registrar General's express authority, and on the payment of further fees. It is important to persons of all classes to be able to prove their age and place of birth, the only legal proof of which is by the civil register. Baptism, or christening, being a superstition, is not necessary for the naming of children. The child may be simply named by the parents at any time, without the use of any religious or theological formulary.

MARRIAGE

Marriage is a civil contract provided by the State for the legal union of man and woman, and for the purpose of binding both to certain reciprocal obligations. Marriage ceremonies, as religious or ecclesiastical functions, are simply superstitions. Among the ancient Hebrews and others the husband, was generally the owner of so many slave concubines, and women were bought and sold like cattle. In Mohammedan countries polygamy is permitted, but a man is limited to four wives, the number of concubines being unlimited. In this country, where the sexes have equal rights, monogamy is the custom, and both are limited to one co-partner. The marriage contract gives a joint proprietorship in children, and there is, consequently, a filial claim upon both parents for protection; and, as the wife is obviously unable to act as mother and provider at the same time, the latter duty devolves by law upon the husband and putative father, and he is compelled to provide for wife and children. The benefit to the wife by the provision of marriage must be obvious, for without such a tie the mother of a family, having probably lost the charms of youth and beauty, might be forsaken, and have to bring up her children single-handed, which would be unjust to her and disastrous to the children, The marriage contract is therefore provided, not only in the interests of morality -- to check promiscuous intercourse -- but in the interests of the wife and the offspring of the union.

It is the duty of parents to exercise every precaution in their power against increasing their families beyond what the means at their disposal justify. Parents living in a civilized society are not justified in recklessly giving birth to children whom they have no adequate means of nourishing, clothing, and educating, and who must either starve or be reared by the kindness and charity of others. Such a state of things is demoralizing to the parents as well as to the offspring. The over-population of the future is a terrible thing to contemplate, but come it must if Christianism is to continue to teach people that it is a blessed thing for a man to "have his quiver full," which, taken literally, might have been true; but, when misapplied, is about as wise as the recommendation to neglect provision, and neither "toil nor spin," like the "lilies of the field." Vegetable life is subject to the check of animal life; the latter, more or less, preying upon the former. Man, by his intellectual superiority, adopts artificial means to keep the lower animal life down and prevent over-production; but he himself has only his own carefulness to rely upon. Disease, famine, and war have acted in former days as exterminators, and so kept population down; but, as knowledge increases, disease is reduced or prevented, famine is guarded against, and wars are avoided by the skill and prudence of statesmen, a greater number live to struggle for existence. The question of over-population is, therefore, of importance; it concerns every parent, and its consideration is becoming more pressing every year. "Population, when unchecked, doubles itself every twenty-five years but the food to support the increase will by no means be obtained with the same facility." [T.R. Malthus.] At this rate, in a few thousand years, there will literally not be standing-room for man's progeny." [Charles Darwin.] In the United States the population has increased four times in the two first periods of twenty-five years of this century.

It is also the duty of those contemplating marriage to make their choice from families only of a high type, physical, mental, and moral; and to avoid matrimonial alliance with those families whose members manifest a strumous (consumptive, rickety) or cancerous tendency. By the exercise of care in this matter greater happiness is promoted in the family circle, and the human species has a better chance of improvement and higher development.

Early marriage should be encouraged to prevent prostitution, and to afford opportunity to all, at a suitable age, of complying with the demands of nature, which are more or less imperative all through life, from the lowest form of organization to the highest. Celibacy opposes itself directly to these natural laws, and the boasted self-restraint of the celibate is frequently only surface- deep, the solitude of the religious recluse fostering secret and unnatural vices; and where it is deeper and real, it is so generally at the expense of health and constitution. Young men, with few exceptions, have a craving for female society, which is part of their human nature; and many might be able to support a wife in comparative comfort, and thus enjoy the companionship which is their right, though, perhaps, not in a position to endure the expenses necessarily attending the acquisition of such a family as is the general result of a careless and thoughtless married life. Through want of knowledge as to how to comply with the requirements of the matrimonial state and practice thrift and economy, they are compelled either to forego marriage altogether, or defer it till their youth and vigor are gone. They are thus turned, as it were, into the streets, in their hours of recreation, to seek that pleasure which might be happily found in the companionship of a wife and the comforts of a home. Advice in these matters ought to be sought from a physician of the Rationalist school, free from theological superstition.

LAWS RELATING TO MARRIAGE (AT A REGISTRAR'S OFFICE.)

Table of consanguinity and affinity, within the degrees of which, in this country, marriages are made absolutely void by an Act of William IV. A man may not marry his --

 

 

Grandmother Sister

Grandfather's wife Wife's sister

Wife's grandmother Brother's wife

Father's sister Son's daughter

Mother's sister Daughter's daughter

Father's brother's wife Son's son's wife

Mother's brother's wife Daughter's son's wife

Wife's father's sister Wife's; son's daughter

Wife's mother's sister Wife's daughter's daughter

Mother Brother's daughter

Stepmother Sister's daughter

Wife's mother Brother's son's wife

Daughter Sister's son's wife

Wife's daughter Wife's brother's daughter

Son's wife Wife's sister's daughter

 

In the case of a woman, the sexes must be reversed.

Marriage by Certificate. -- If both parties have resided in the same district during the preceding seven days, a written notice (on a special form, declaring there is no lawful hindrance as to ages, residence, and consent of parents, if a minor) must be signed by one of them before the Registrar, and given to the Superintendent Registrar of the district. If they reside in different Registrars' districts, a similar notice must be sent to each Superintendent Registrar. The marriage may be contracted within three calendar months of the notice; but not till twenty-one days have elapsed, when the Superintendent Registrar will issue his certificate to marry. Fee 9s. 7d.

Marriage by License. -- It is necessary for only one of the parties to give notice to the Superintendent Registrar of the district in which he or she has resided for the preceding fifteen days. After the expiration of one day, next after the day of entry of notice, the Superintendent Registrar issues his certificate and license to marry. The marriage may be contracted at any time within three calendar months after the date of entry of notice. Fees; 2 pounds 17s. 1d.

The Marriage Ceremony. -- Marriages are contracted before the Superintendent Registrar and the Registrar of the district," and in the presence of two witnesses, between 8 a.m. and 3 P.m. Each party declares as follows: "I do solemnly declare that I know not of any lawful impediment why I, A B, may not be joined in matrimony to C D; and each shall say to the other: "I call upon these Persons here present to witness that I, A B (or C D), do take thee, C D, (.or A B), to be my lawful wedded wife (or husband.)" A wedding-ring is usually required.

It is hardly necessary to remark that "the solemnization of marriages" in churches, or as "sacraments" of religion, is superstitious, being a relic of days of ignorance, credulity, and priestcraft.

 

INSTRUCTIONS FOR BURIAL

Those desirous of being buried without religious ceremony or interference by the clergyman of the parish should sign a testamentary document to that effect (which may be obtained from the National Secular Society [377, Strand, London, W.C.] for 2d. in stamps), and notify the fact to the National Secular Society of their having done so.

For those intending to be buried in a CEMETERY, in unconsecrated ground, a service may be held and an address given, but for those whom circumstances may necessitate being buried in a CHURCHYARD it is necessary that the Burial Law Amendment Act, 1880, should be complied with, the chief regulations of which are as follows: --

1. Any responsible person having charge of the burial may do all that is required without the above testamentary document; but it is better to have it.

2. Forty-eight hours' notice in writing must be given to the clergyman of the parish, or any person appointed to receive such notice (sometimes the clerk or sexton), on a special form (supplied with the form of Will above).

3. The burial must be between 10 a.m. and 6 p.m., from April 1st to October 1st; and between 10 a.m. and 3 P.m., from October 1st to April 1st.

4. In the case of a pauper buried by the parish, a copy of the above notice must also be sent to the master of the workhouse.

5. If the day and hour be inconvenient to the clergyman, or in conflict with any burial bye-law, or because the day is Sunday, Good Friday, or Christmas Day, the clergyman may, on stating his reasons, by twenty-four hours' notice in writing, postpone the burial till the following day.

6. The clergyman is entitled to be paid the fees he would have received if the service had been performed.

7. Everyone has free access to the funeral, but it must be conducted in silence; and any riotous, violent, or indecent behavior, or any offensive conduct towards the Christian religion, is punishable by law. The address, if any, must therefore be given at the home.

8. The person responsible for the burial must sign a certificate (special form obtainable from the National Secular Society), and deliver it to the clergyman in charge of the churchyard, at the time of the funeral or next day, for entry in the parish register.

9. The Act applies to England and Wales and the Channel Islands only.

 

FREEDOM OF THOUGHT

As the people are the source of all authority, so is liberty of opinion the right of every human being; and as everyone has a right to pursue his own good in his own way, so long as he does not attempt to deprive others of theirs, or impede their efforts to obtain it, so everyone has an absolute right to independence, and is sovereign over himself, his own body and mind; and no one is accountable to others for his opinions -- religious or otherwise. Our opinions may be right or they may be wrong; but so may those of others be. We ought, as individuals, just as society as represented by the Legislature ought, always to be ready to hear with patience the opinions of others. Neither the Legislature nor society has the right to suppress the expression of opinion -- when within the bounds of reasonable controversy; neither have we, as individuals, the right to deny a hearing to the opinion of others because we in our own judgment have condemned them. "If all mankind," says Mr. J.S. Mill, "minus one were of one opinion, and only one person were of the contrary opinion, mankind would be no more justified in silencing that one person than he, if he had the power, would be justified in silencing mankind ... The peculiar evil of silencing the expression of opinion is that it is robbing the human race. If the opinion is right, they are deprived of the opportunity of exchanging error for truth; if wrong, they lose what is almost as great a benefit -- the clearer perception and livelier impression of the truth, produced by its collision with error." ["On Liberty."] Again he says: "Mankind are greater gainers by suffering each other to live as seems good to themselves than by compelling each to live as seems good to the rest." Inducements may be offered to us to hold certain opinions which we believe to be false, because they may be useful; but no belief which is contrary to truth can really be useful.

Liberty of thought and opinion, however, is not liberty of speech. Liberty of speech is only justifiable under certain restrictions, for there is no absolute freedom of speech in civilized society; each individual must be limited in his speech as in his conduct. All have a right to talk freely concerning public matters, so long as they do not violate the moral law by menacing the rights or welfare of others, by mischief-making, by exciting the mob by inflammatory language or placards, or by instigating in any other way to any mischievous acts.

Under the old English law, the penalty for heresy, blasphemy, and schism was death by burning, after trial by the ecclesiastical courts. This death penalty was abolished in 1677, and the ecclesiastical courts subsequently lost their jurisdiction over any but the clergy of the Established Church. As heresy dropped out of sight, attention was fixed on blasphemy, the law of blasphemous libel still remaining on the Statute Book. "An Act for the more effectual suppression of blasphemy and profaneness" was passed in the reign of William III. (9 and 10, c. 32), which declares that "any person or persons having been educated in, or at any time having made profession of, the Christian religion within this realm who shall, by writing, printing, teaching, or advised speaking, deny any one of the persons in the Holy Trinity to be God, or shall assert or maintain that there are more gods than one, or shall deny the Christian doctrine to be true, or the Holy Scriptures of the Old and New Testament to be of divine authority, shall upon conviction be disabled from holding any ecclesiastical, civil, or military employment, and on a second conviction be imprisoned for three years, and deprived for ever of all civil rights." So much of it as affected the Unitarians was ostensibly repealed by the 53 George III., c. 160. But it still disgraces the Statute Book. In 1883 Messrs. Foote, Ramsey, and Kemp were successfully, and the late Mr. Bradlaugh unsuccessfully, prosecuted under this Act. It was alleged against them that they "wickedly and profanely attempted to bring the Holy Scriptures and the Christian religion into disbelief and contempt," not only "against the peace of our lady the Queen," but also "to the great displeasure of Almighty God." Here is a distinct attempt by the Legislature, not only to suppress the opinions of individuals, but to force opinions upon them which have never been proved to be right, but have actually been proved to be wrong; and the confidence with which the displeasure of the deity, in which its majority at the time of the passing of the Act, believed, is declared, is a simple begging of a very important and extensive question -- a claiming of infallibility, and a presuming to a knowledge of the unknowable.

The "Lord's Day Observance Act" of Charles I. prohibits public crying and the exposure of goods for sale on Sundays. The amended Act of 1871 requires the consent of the chief officer of the district, two justices, or that of a stipendiary magistrate.

Upholders of freedom of thought ought not to rest till these partial and bigoted laws are repealed. For this purpose the late Mr. Bradlaugh brought in a Bill in the House of Commons, and, notwithstanding strong opposition, was successful in obtaining forty-seven votes. The expression of opinion by Freethinkers is, according to these laws, illegal; their corporate meetings are illegal, and they cannot hold property, receive legacies, in any corporate capacity, or open any room for entertainment and amusement on Sundays.

 

OATHS, AFFIRMATIONS, AND LAST WILL

Any person required to take an oath is entitled, under the Oaths Act, 1888, to swear with uplifted hand in the Scotch manner (though it is not necessary that the Scotch form of words should be used), or to affirm. Rationalists usually claim to affirm. The witness (or, if a juryman, the juror) should say, "I object to be sworn, on the ground that I have no religious belief." The official administering the oath is then bound, without further question from anyone, to permit witness to affirm.

IF A JUROR, and he is told to "leave the box," he should at once leave the Court; but if he is told to "leave the box, but not the Court," he should say: "My Lord (if a judge of the High Court; if a County Court judge or Coroner." Your Honorer;" if a Police Magistrate or Mayor -- "Your Worship, I am ready and willing now to perform my duty as juryman in the case in which my name has been called, -- but if your Lordship dispenses with my services as juror, I respectfully deny your jurisdiction to detain me in Court."

IF A WITNESS, and any question be put by the judge, he should say: "My Lord, I Respectfully submit that, having made my objection in the exact words of the statute, I am now entitled to affirm without any question, and that I am not bound to answer any question." If the judge persists in questioning witness as to his opinion, he should be met by a respectful but distinct refusal to answer.

IF A CORONER OR MAGISTRATE should refuse to take his evidence, witness should ask: "On what ground do you decline to take my evidence?" and the answer be carefully written down, and sent to the Secretary of the Rationalist Press Committee (17, Jobnson's Court, Fleet Street, E.C.), or to the Secretary of the National Secular Society (377, Strand, W.C.).

The Acts are repealed which required the judge to be satisfied of the sincerity of the objection when made on religious grounds.

 

FORM OF AFFIRMATION. -- "I, A B, do solemnly, sincerely, and truly declare and affirm that I will tell the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth."

 

FORM OF AFFIRMATION IN WRITING (instead of the ordinary "affidavit" A B, of ____, do solemnly and sincerely affirm that. Affirmed at ______, this day of ___, 18__. Before me, etc."